U. González Serrano, Ensayos de crítica y de filosofía, Madrid, 1881. «Pero donde revela su estilo verdaderamente escultural Pérez Galdós es en la descripción de los caracteres, en el bosquejo de sus tipos y en la pintura de sus personajes, convertidos todos en Doña Perfecta en centros, a que converge constantemente toda la complexión de la obra». (N. del A.)

Orbajosa as a provincial social entity is not only remarkable for its apparent lack of class conflict (we need speak here at no more length of its beggars or of its evidently desperate bandits summarily executed by the «Guardia Civil» than does Galdós) but also for the Jack of desire of its inhabitants to emigrate. The Checkovian generalization of Albert Thibaudet («[...] une petite ville... c'est le désir d'être ailleurs...», Gustave Flaubert, Paris, 1935, p. 98) is totally unapplicable to our cast of characters-with the possible exception of «las niñas de Troya» who may or may not have been aware that they might have found «novios» in Madrid. (N. del A.)

«Las referencias clásicas de Doña Perfecta. Tema y estructura de la novela». NRFH, 3 (1949), 353-362. (N. del A.)

One of the major differences between the l9th-century novel and its predecessors is its consciousness of the representational dimension of its private lives. Thus, for example, an Evan Dhu Maccombich was created to stand for the upright clansman while a Sancho Panza or a Squire Western who are more or less typical (and so comic) are taken for granted insofar as they are creatures of history and society. One cannot imagine Cervantes saying about don Quijote what Balzac says of César Birotteau and his brother: «En saissant bien le sens de cette composition, on reconnaîtra que j'accorde aux faits constants, quotidiens, secrets ou patents, aux actes de la vie individuelle, à leurs causes et à leurs principes autant d'importance que jusqu'alors les historiens en ont attaché aux événements de la vie publique des nations... Les infortunes des Birotteau, le prêtre et le parfumeur, sont pour moi celles de l'humanité». Op. cit. I, «Avant-propos», p. 13. Which is to say humanity seen through the particularities of milieu, occupation, historical generation, etc. From which Bardèche goes on to conclude that although many of Balzac's secondary characters may seen «mal rattachés à l'action», by a process of «transmutation» they become «les symboles de toute une realité sociale, ils expliquent tout déjà par leur presence». Op. cit., p. 185. It was this new consciousness that first Zola and later Galdós went on to systematize and develop in their different ways. Lukacs indicates that a principal stimulus for this consciousness was German Romanticism with its theories of epic and dramatic art: «These essential features and all important laws of life must appear in a new immediacy as the unique personal features and connections of concrete human beings and concrete situations». The Historical Novel, p. 92. (N. del A.)

«History as News in La Fontana de Oro», Estudios literarios de norteamericanos dedicados a Helmut Hatzfeld con motivo de su 80 aniversario, Madrid, 1974, pp. 407-413. (N. del A.)

A representative selection would include: Pierre Jobit, Les Educateurs de l'Espagne contemporaine, Paris, 1936; Juan López Morillas, El krausismo español, México, 1956; and, more recently, Elías Díaz, La filosofía social del krausismo español, Madrid, 1973. The last contains an extensive bibliography. (N. del A.)

Op. cit., p. 138. (N. del A.)

Ensayos, ed. J. López Morillas, 1969, p. 45. In his essay on the epic and the failure of 19th-century poets to echo Homer's all-embracing historical voice one can sense the inevitability of this not yet specified conclusion. (N. del A.)

Op. cit., p. 201. Cited by López Morillas. (N. del A.)

Textos escogidos, ed. Eloy Terrón, Barcelona, 1968, pp. 92-93. Cited by Elías Díaz. A copious collection of such quotations could be gathered not only from the writings of Sanz del Río and his followers but also from their reading. The doctrine of the organic harmony of the individual and ever larger collectivities is central to Krause's thought and is expressed in many places and ways in his writings. Thus, for example, «Sehen wir endlich darauf, dass jeder einzelne Mensch ein organisches Glied zunächst höherer menschlicher Gesellschaften ist». Lebenlehre oder Philosophie der Geschichte, ed. P. Hohlfeld and A. Wünsche, Leipzig, 1904, p. 170. Or again at more length, «Fünfter Lehrsatz. Das Leben des Einzelmenschen wird bestimmt und soll bestimmt werden nach der Idee des Organismus, wonach der Einzelmensch das unterste, aber doch ein unendlich würdevolles Glied ist in der ganzen Menschheit». The familiar hierarchy from person to family, to «Volke», and to humanity then follows. Ibid., p. 309. (N. del A.)